Bharatanatyam Dance Shape Tamil Cultural Cultural Studies Essay

Bharatanatyam Dance Shape Tamil Cultural Cultural Studies Essay Bharatantyam has been embedded in the Tamil culture for centuries, transmitted from generation to generation and evolving over time to uphold its sacredness and its representation of the states traditional identity. Today Bharatanaytam has spread worldwide, performed and practiced across countries and accepted by both traditional and modern masses. However it was only after its rebirth in 1930, when the Devadasi Act was passed, and due to E. Krishna Iyers reworking of the dances movement vocabulary into a socially accepted dance form (On, 2011), that Bharatanatyam gained its respectable social status and hence is why today it plays a crucial role in portraying Indias cultural and traditional identity. This portrayal may be seen as what Bourdieu would call a habitus, which is created through a social, rather an individual process leading to patterns that are enduring and transferrable from one context to another (Powercube, 2012). More precisely, Bharatanatyam is a social measure used to maintain and promote a certain habitus, defining the cultures values which are transferred both through time and across the nations, whilst also acting as a guide for the Tamil generations today. This essay analyses, based substantially on Bourdieus habitus theory, to what extent Bharatanatyam shapes Tamil cultural identity, especially abroad. Art forms in general, especially when practiced over centuries, have proven to be central to any articulation of ethnic identity (Hyder, cited in David, 2009) and this is even more true when a population lives outside of its home nation. There were, and still are, a significant amount of Tamilians that immigrate from India and Sri Lanka to the United Kingdom, especially during and after the British colonialism period. For many Tamilians in London, especially the older generation, Bharatanatyam is the element that contains within it all of their cultural and religious identity: it represents an idealism that they must try to incorporate and preserve. Bharatnayam acts as what Foster would consider an ideal body, something that the material body looks up to and tries to achieve. This ideal cultural representation in Bharatanaym has been transmitted over the years to future generations and to this day young Tamilians explain how Bharatanatyam is part of [their] culture and prevents the culture and religion [from] being forgotten, especially in the West (David, 2009). Two students, Maya and Mahumita, reinforce this statement by confirming that studying Bharatanatyam is their way of learning about their cultural heritage whilst living abroad. For example, most of Bharatanatyams bodily movements and facial expressions bear a prominent representation of Tamil womanhood. This can be seen in small gestures such as the application of the kumkum on the forehead (in representation of the third eye), the plaiting of the hair or the folding of the sari, all symbolizing a feminized social body (David, 2009), describing how a woman should appear and behave in this cultural context. Another more specific example would be that of the heroine character, known as the nayika, and how she uses stylized gestures to prepare herself to meet the hero, the nayaka. Through these gestures the dance transmits an idea of femininity and grace which acts as an ideal for all Tamil women to try live up to and admire. This also links to Bourdieus concept of doxa, which is formed through a combination of unspoken norms and beliefs that are taken-for-granted assumptions or common sense behind the distinctions we make (Powercube, 2012), which in this case is the portrayal of how women are expected to behave. These characteristics that Tamil women need to behold are part of an unstated conduct that is reinforced through the dances movements and storytelling, constantly reminding the Tamil population, and women in particular, what their role in society is. As author Ann R. David explains, for the Tamil middle class, Bharatanatyam promises respectability and a traditional femininity and is, therefore, a prized carrier of tradition (David, 2009). As a result, purity of Tamil tradition, their rituals and religion, their language and their social behaviour (such as the importance of womens chastity in the Tamil civilization) is upheld substantially through Bharatanatyam it is consi dered an influential tool used to craft social status and conduct, uniting Tamil cultural identity across the world. However, first-generation Tamil immigrants, and especially Tamil Hindu groups, are concerned that the external pressures of the West may overwhelm the younger generations and cause them to lose sight of their national identity as Tamilians. In order to preserve this sense of cultural identity, several schools have been built abroad to encourage and indulge the youth in their Tamil culture, ensuring that their roots are not forgotten. These classes would, according to Ann R. David, allow the transmission of traditional culture and assist immigrants in maintaining Tamil identity in local diasporic settings where the acquisition of Tamil social, cultural, and religious values does not necessarily take place (David, 2009). Most Sri Lankan Tamil temples and Tamil weekend classes in London are led by Tamil conservationists who try to stay true to their cultural identity by discouraging their dance pupils to attend international performances to keep them from any outside influences. In add ition, most of the syllabus is written and taught in Tamil, despite the fact that the second generations are likely to have grown up with English as their first language given their educational and social context. This obsession to ensure that Bharatanatyam is practised and incorporated in the lives of immigrated Tamilians means that, as a result, the dance now bears more rituals and ceremonies attached to it today than it had during the period of its revival (David, 2009). For example, the offering of flowers on stage, known as pushpanjali, and the dedication of bells on the stage are common rituals now that were not required previously in Bharatanatyam. As part of their cultural essentialism, none of the teachers in the London Tamil temples have introduced any creative or slightly unconventional material to their students, ensuring that the history of the dance is untouched in order to transfer a pure concept of their Tamil cultural identity. This may be considered as what Bourdie u refers to as misrecognition, similar to Marxs concept of false consciousness, which is the conscious manipulation of a certain group or individual. In this case, the conservationists use Bharatanatyam to encourage certain social pressures that have been accepted without questioning such as, as previously discussed, the role of obedient women in the Tamil society. But is this pressure of preserving Tamil traditions through Bharatanatyam having the contrary effect and pushing away the younger generations from exploring their cultural identity? Some may argue yes, as certain teachers and practitioners, mostly in other countries in Europe and in North America, support Tamil nationalism through change and development. Aided and supported by the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam), Tamil Sri Lankan nationalism in particular is encouraged to evolve through more creative Bharatanatyam choreographies. For example, a Bharatanatyam piece was choreographed narrating the story of a military woman who sacrifices her male relatives to be a part of the Sri Lankan war. These types of narrations are unconventional compared to any of the traditional Bharatanatyam stories which usually involve Gods and their relationship with mankind. Another example would be the Akademi centre today whose goal is to enlarge received aesthetic definitions of the traditional and classical through strategic acts of cultural translation and situate Indian dance on the multicultural map of Great Britain (Meduri, 2004). Therefore, this modernising of Bharatanatyam and the use of its representative symbolic movements to express contemporary concerns is going against the work of the preservationists. This contemporary development of Bharatanayam can be seen as creating a new, more current and perhaps global cultural identity. This sense of global identity seems to be growing, even in Britain, especially amongst the second generation as they have no strong, direct ties to their homeland. They hence tend to see themselves more as British, British Asian or British Hindu citizens who are made up of both cultures, yet belong strongly to neither. These young Tamilians are part of a global youth culture (Saldanha, cited in David, 2009) which means they hold a global identity, unlike their elder relatives who struggle to maintain their traditional cultural identity whilst living in a different country amidst a completely different set of values. In the late 20th century all Indian dance forms were put under the label of South Asian dance, despite the fact that South Asia evidently consists of many more countries than just India, hence not only creating a rather vague category for these Indian dances, but also merging internationalism with nationalism. The specific classical dance Bharatantyam being thrown amidst numerous other Indian dances and renamed as a part of a South Asian dance was a huge turning point as it enlarged the Indian label and made visible the diverse dance, performance, and theatre practices of the Indian/Asian diaspora (Meduri, 2004). But some Bharatanatyam dancers and teachers, such as Mira Kaushik, encouraged this relocation of Bharatanatyam dance within the broader category of South Asian dance. Kaushik claimed that although Indian dance might look Indian, it is South Asian dance in the United Kingdom because it is performed not just by immigrant dancers from India but by hundreds of South Asian dancers belonging to the different nations of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, India, and Africa (Meduri, 2004). One may argue that Kaushik challenges the idea that Bharatanatyam is specially reserved for Tamilians as their source of cultural identity; she brings a whole new concept to Bharatanatyam by suggesting that it can appeal, be understood and performed by many o ther nationalities. This reform therefore alters and reshapes the key tool Bharatanatyam that traditionally promotes the estalished Tamil habitus. By reintegrating Bharatanaytam with a more futuristic and contemporary aspect, it challenges the cultures original habitus and its centuries of unquestioned customs. Therefore Bharatnatyam may actually be seen as a source of creativity and as a catalyst for a new global identity, rather than a source of tradition and preservation of a purely Tamil identity. Bharatnayam has been adopted and reworked since the very beginning of the 1900s by the West, especially in the United States to begin with. For example, in 1906 Ruth St. Denis, the co-founder of the dance company Denishawn, was hugely inspired by South Asian dance and she immersed herself in Indian writings and culture. She used these resources to later on choreograph dance pieces, such as Incense, The Legend of the Peacock, Radha and further on group productions such as The Flute of Krishna in the 1920s. Another distinct dance pioneer, La Meri, even created a rendition of Swan Lake through Bharatanatyam vocabulary. Especially since the 1930s, Bharatnayam has opened up, as men now feel comfortable to interpret womanly roles, whilst also many dancers from outside of the Tamil nationality have b egan practicing Bharatanatyam, even to a professional level. But does this globalisation of Bharatanatyam necessarily affect the preservation and the influence it has on the Tamil population and their cultural identity? Rather on the contrary, although Bharatantyam has been increasingly globalised since the early 1900s, the dance itself to this day remains associated with tradition and symbolism. Both in local Indian communities and abroad, Bharatanatyam is an art that globally and continually promotes the habitus of the Tamil community and its values: whether a non-Tamilian dances it, whether a contemporary story is being told or whether a man dances a womans character the movement vocabulary and the concepts behind the dance remains the same for example, even the interpretation of Swan Lake by Le Meri through Bharatanaym essentially needs to use the dances symbolized codes to tell the story. Bharatanatyam is based intricately on traditional meanings, and therefore whatever context it may be placed in, it will stay true to its Tamil origin. Especially in countries such as Britain and Indonesia where the Tamil population is significant, Bharatanatyam remains a key pathway to not only identify themselves with their distant Tamil customs and embody their cultures habitus, but to spread it worldwide. Word count: 2,005

Evolution of the Opera in Europe

Ask a high school student about Opera and they would just shrugged their shoulders in lack of knowledge, or others would try to guess and say that it’s a musical play, something like Broadway. While others who may have a bit of familiarity with Opera would say, â€Å"those silly men with long beards and silly dresses that sings in a very high voice†. In reality, opera is related to all of these definitions given. The scope of this paper is to introduce Opera into the twentieth century audience. Naturally, the history of Opera, when and where did it start and who are the people that made Opera famous and made famous by the Opera would be discussed.As well as the different forms of opera, and its different kinds or genre to be more specific. After which, an analysis of the whereabouts of Opera nowadays would be presented. II. What is an Opera? An Opera is a stage show that was only available for the European elites in the 1700s. It was sort of the ancestor of musical thea ters like Broadway and West End in London; it is just that Opera themes are usually about Greek Drama. It includes musical numbers, solos by lead actors and sometimes even a ballet-like dance to emphasize the action and texts of the songs.Opera dramas are predominantly about Greek Drama because Opera originated in Italy in the late 1600s, where Italian aristocracy fully enjoys performances in their own balconies and private theaters. Just like any beautiful thing, Opera spread to the common folk and took pride for its various performances and many composers from all over Europe, not just Italy, until everything was placed in a halting pause when wars emerged and the arts was put aside for some other important things. Opera before in the early ages was like Hollywood, stars were revered and composers were treated as royalties.They held performances from the greatest capitals of Europe like Naples, Saint Petersburg, Rome, Milan, Vienna, Venice, Berlin and Paris; as well as in the oper a houses newly established in New York City and New Orleans. The musicality of Opera has influenced other forms of music which are still thriving and used nowadays. An example is the usage of sinfonia, an instrumental prelude of the Opera which as now known as symphonies and the attempt to make piano and violin solos during a concerto was a clear indication of following through Opera’s cadenza (solos).The masterful innovation of 19th century German composer Richard Wagner in his orchestration for his different compositions became a big influence in shaping the classical music of the 19th century. a. When did it start? Opera started in the late 1600s through a group of scholars, known as the camerata instigated a performance with the aim of promoting monodic musical declamations. Although musical stage play was already existent as early as the 12th century like The Play of Daniel, it was Jacopo Peri’s and Ottavio Rinuccini’s Euridice, that was considered as the f irst Opera in the 1600.However, Jacopo Peri’s first composition Dafne was argued by other scholars as the first true Opera, though little of its text can be found now. Monodic musical declamations are recitals with free rhythm accompanied by a subtle music, and usually about Ancient Greek Drama and mythology. Just like the first Opera Euridice that was taken from the Greek mythology about Orpheus and his beloved Euridice. b. Where did it start? 1. Baroque (Italian) Opera originally came from Italy, wherein it was known as Baroque Opera or Italian Opera.It had its first shows in Venice and Rome, where Sant’ Alessio by Stefano Landi established Roman Opera in 1632. The libretto was penned by Giulio Rospigliosi and Landi modified the narrative style of the monodic trend by creating recitative and aria. But Roman Opera had to await the arrival of Claudio Monteverdi for it to blossom. He was an educated man and performed in the lavish court of the Gonzaga family and finally directed a church choir, after which he created his first opera in 1607, his own version of the Orpheus and Euridice mythology entitled La Favola d’Orfeo.Peri and Monteverdi’s version were so different that if Peri’s version was more of a monodic narrative with subtle accompaniment; Monteverdi’s version has more music in it. He expanded the accompaniment into a full scale orchestra with bowed and plucked strings, harpsichord and organ, trumpets and drums for more dramatic effects. He also gave each character his own musical identity and created a very poignant overture. It was the combination of lyric text and musical play as the term drama per musica (drama through music) had intended.Monteverdi’s L’Incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppaea) in 1642, was the first to tackle a very sensitive subject matter and staged a very powerful vocal composition that would soon be stereotypical of an Opera. Marcantonio Cesti and Pietro Frances co Cavalli heralded the next generation of Venetian composers. They created an international style wherein the recitative was given less part in favor of the aria and the chorus was replaced with solos. Cavalli continued Monteverdi’s innovative style with his own Opera L’Ormindo and La Calisto.His Operas was known to include some charade and sexual content for the amusement of the viewers. Another Venetian composer, and also a predecessor of 18th Century Neapolitan School, Alessandro Stradella was also praised for having his own style in writing Operas. 2. English The Italian Opera became widespread in Europe and landed some its charms in England. Composers in England have begun working together to create masques, a court entertainment involving exaggerated speeches, dancing, ridiculous plots and costumes.The first English Opera was The Siege of Rhodes by poet Sir William D’Avenant in 1656 and music by Lawes, Matthew Locke, Henry Cooke, Charles Coleman and Georg e Hudson. John Blow wrote Venus and Adonis in 1684 but was not properly accredited as an Opera for some critics still call it a masque, but in 1689, Blow’s pupil Henry Purcell wrote the greatest English Opera of the 17th century entitled Dido and Aeneas. This Opera completely absorbed Italian influence and brought death to England’s masque.However, the most famous English composer was not really English, but rather a German born composer who completely immersed himself in Neapolitan Italian style. He was George Frideric Handel, composer of the widely acclaimed Messiah. He composed Rinaldo, his first Opera in England in 1711 where he immediately attained success and followed it with Giulio Cesare in 1724, Rodelinda in 1725 and Alcina in 1735. Handel synthesized the castrati that attained popularity and was the thing to do at that time.Aside from Handel making waves in England, there were also other local talents who are testing the waters like John Gay and John Christop her Pepusch who created The Beggar’s Opera in 1728. This form of Opera paved the way for ballad opera that ridiculed Italian opera and modern politics. 3. French Opera In French Opera, the form of aesthetics was firmly based on the visual, which is their concept of Opera was ballet transformed into musical theater. Eventually, Italian opera caught up with them and strong vocal performances found its way into their stages.French opera formally began with Jean Baptiste Lully where he presented a modernized version of Cavalli’s Serse in the wedding of Louis XIV of France and his cousin Marie Therese in 1660. The ballet performance was carefully choreographed by Lully. Lully then established the Academie Royale de Musique in 1672 where he created operas known as tragedies lyriques or lyrical tragedies. Most of the themes that were used were about mythology and legends again as the French court deemed it inappropriate to depict real persons in their performances.Lullyâ€⠄¢s theatre showcased fabulous ballet movements and abundant set designs that fully make the audience experience the story of the opera. Lully’s most outstanding operas were the Alceste in 1674, Atys in 1676 and Armide et Renaude in 1686. After Lully, another French composer, Jean Philippe Rameu attempted to make French Opera more harmonious and yet spontaneous at the same time. He wrote 32 operas that highlighted polyphony or the combination of multiple melodic lines. Rameu still maintained the dance factor in his operas as evident by the lengthy ballet numbers in his Les Indes Gallantes in 1735 and Dardanus in 1739.His plays Hippolyte et Aricie and Castor et Pollux has been presented for so many times. 4. German and Austrian German opera took its root from singspiel, their comic opera with spoken dialogue that would later on be influenced by the ballad genre. Early German courts much prefer their Italian contemporaries, wherein Frederick the Great insulted the German opera and compared it to the neighing of a horse. So, in the 18th century, German composers tried to revive singspiel and transform it into a better one.German composer George Phillip Telemann had based his Pimpione, a comic opera with only two characters on Pergolesi’s La Serva Padrona, in 1725. Another composer, Johann Christian Standfuss created Der Teufel ist Lost or The Devil to Pay, in 1752, in an attempt to resurrect singspiel. However, it was only the arrival of famous German composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart that German Opera reached its peak. Mozart’s Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail or The Abduction from Seraglio in 1782 introduced singspiel internationally and made Vienna a music capital.Mozart continued to place Vienna in front of the international music scene through his compositions, Le Nozze di Figaro or The Marriage of Figaro in 1786; Don Giovanni in 1787; and Cosi fan tutte or Women are Like That in 1790. However, these works were very controversial during thos e times that it upset moralists and the contributed to the revolutionary sentiments in France; that it was neglected until the early 20th century when it was revived and made Mozart the greatest composer of all. c. Who are the singers? Opera singers are classified according to their gender and range of their voices.In a female singer, she can be classified as soprano, the highest range; mezzo-soprano as the middle range and contralto as the lowest range. In a male character, he can be classified as tenor as the highest; baritone the middle range and bass as the lowest range. The roles of actors would be dependent on the range of their voices and usually is assigned by the composers themselves. The choices would be strategically thought about by the lyricist and the composer and most of the times sopranos and tenors are reserved for the lead actors while the antagonists are played by bass or mezzo sopranos.This stereotyping is still ongoing up to now. A legendary mezzo soprano was Fa ustina Bordoni whose ability to sustain a note was amazing. Italian tenor Enrico Caruso is probably the most famous opera singer in history. III. What are the characteristics of an Opera? a. Voice The main feature of every opera is the singing, so setting aside the musical accompaniments; it is the vocal prowess of the actors that would carry the performance up to its end. Therefore, the arias, duets and choruses are strategically placed to emphasize the growing drama.An aria is a soliloquy or a monologue wherein the actor sings alone as in narrating through rhythm the events or his feelings. It is difficult to maintain an opera through an aria by itself but some composers found it to be the best way of relaying the plot of the story and conveying fast events, like fast talking but with a musical beat. b. Orchestra The orchestra serves as the backbone or the supporting structure of the Opera. Its strategic rhythm and melodious tempo helps the story unfold and captures the audienceâ €™s attention and carries them along as the opera develops.It helps in the escalation of feelings and provides dramatic sequences throughout the entire opera. c. Overture Overtures are theatrical introductions or short musical preludes that are usually coming from the theme of the opera itself. It sets the emotion of the audience in preparation for the first act and could run anywhere from 5 to 15 minutes. However, this style was later on disregarded to give way to preludes or sometimes totally overlooked in some operas. IV. What are the forms of an Opera? a. Dramatic The term drama pertains not only for the lyrics or the texts of the opera but also about the feelings the music eludes.The original Italian composers called their works as dramma per musica and this tradition can be traced back from religious plays that also utilize music to relay their accounts. In a musical play, although complete by itself already, cannot be all together called an operatic drama unless it employ s music that helps heighten the emotion. In writing dramatic operas, composers usually make use of situations that involves sadness and eludes a distressing sentiment, at the same time applying higher registers of voice (soprano) to indicate passion or cacophonous mixtures to depict fear.Although there are points in which voices do occasionally rise from excitement and anger, the skilled composer would turn the music to become identical with the feelings arose by the character. b. Romantic The beginning of the 19th century inspired an artistic movement called romanticism and became widespread in literature, art and music. It spells imagination, creative freedom and subjectivity of interpretation. During this period artistry became luxuriant and flamboyant, employing large scale orchestras, higher notes, enormous choruses and more passionate solos.The theme as well was all on the subject of longings, faraway places, unrequited love affairs, intense romances, melancholic characters, n ostalgia, tempestuous romances, nationalistic themes and magical beings. Gioacchino Rossini of Italy was inspired and created an opera based on Sir Walter Scott’s Lady of the Lake or La Donna del Lago in 1819. However it was Giuseppe Verdi whose works lamented the Austrian oppression of Italy highlighted patriotism in its utmost romantic fervor. German romantic opera was made famous by two outstanding composers in the personality of Richard Wagner and Ludwig Van Beethoven.Beethoven’s only opera Fidelio in 1805 introduced romanticism in Singspiel. The difficulty Beethoven went through while composing Fidelio was reason enough for him to never make one again. Wagner composed the romantic drama Tristan Und Isolde in 1865. In his final masterpiece, Parsifal, about the quest for the Holy Grail, Wagner created such beautiful music that other opera houses took it in immediately and it was considered as a very successful work suitable to end such a wonderful career. V.Twentiet h Century Opera The romantic period of Opera ended when harsh times came with the war, this ushered twentieth century opera in a very peculiar way. Although Wagner’s Parsifal is still being played, Richard Strauss created Salome in 1905 based on a play by Oscar Wilde. Strauss was regarded as Wagner’s successor when it comes to creating beautiful music. Other successors are Arnold Schoenberg and Albag Berg and became known as the second Viennese school. Berg created Wozzeck in 1925 and Lulu in 1937.Schoenberg composed Expectation in 1909 and Moses und Aron in 1957. English opera looked on to the Indian epic Mahabharata to derive the Opera Savitri by Gustav Holst in 1916 and Ralph Vaughan Williams composed Sir John In Love in 1929, an adaptation of Shakespeare’s The Merry Wives of Windsor. Igor Stravinsky, a Russian born composer who settled in the United States composed a remarkable collection of Operas, ranging from the romantic The Nightingale in 1914, the Gree k drama Oedipus Rex in 1927 and The Rake’s Progress in 1951.VI. Conclusion Opera nowadays is still being played by various theater houses all over the world, not just Europe anymore. Opera became widespread and more and more contemporary composers deep their hand into producing operas and making it available for public. However, it seems that Opera had come back to its previous state of being patronized only by elites and socialites way back in Italy in the late 1600s.Opera had become unreachable and in the present situation of the world right now, it is hard to depict the poverty, the terrorism and the hunger that occupies the humankind presently. Opera can not be flexible and it would be absurd to see artists dancing and singing in an attempt to depict hunger in Africa. Unlike other stage shows wherein they could properly address this issue and show the reality that they want to portray. Opera can never be mainstream, it enjoys a position at the top of the musical industry and it shall stay there forever.

The Good, the Bad and Professional Custom Essays

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The Stand For Affirmative Action - 1909 Words

Stand for Affirmative Action America has made progress on the issue of inequality but there are still unresolved conflicts. Slavery has long ended but bias against African Americans still exists even today. Affirmative action was created to deal with this issue. The purpose of affirmative action is to encourage diversity among everyone and also to give people of color equal opportunities. It allows university admissions officials or employers to take race, ethnicity, or gender into account when they make admission or hiring decisions. This solution is controversial because some people feel as though this policy gives African Americans an advantage and is thus in a way reverse racism. Critics also pose that allowing people into†¦show more content†¦After World War II psychologists realized that racially integrated combat units were reported less racial prejudice than their segregated counterparts. This leads to the idea that affirmative action needs to stay in place to ensure there will be interaction a mong different groups of people and therefore ultimately there will be better relations and understandings between groups. Although this is not determinative because after all, slaveholders in the United States constantly interacted with their slaves. But if the interaction takes place between groups of equal status– something affirmative action can help facilitate, according to it s proponents- social scientists predict that the contact will encourage tolerance. (Brown). This theory makes sense because the more opportunities there are for interaction, the more interactions will take place and therefore the more relationships and diversity there will be. Affirmative action sprung up from the Civil Rights movement of the 1950 s/60 s. It was first used as an executive order from President Kennedy in 1961. In 1964, the Civil Right Act banned discrimination based on race, sex, religion or national origin. A year later, President Johnson made an affirmative action policy and said that affirmative action is a way to compensate for slavery (Affirmative Action 2016). Minorities were excepted into universities to